第1页：房地产的定义
- Chapter 18 Real estate and International Construction房地产与国际工程Section A Real Estate房地产Real Estate Defined房地产的定义Ask 100 people to define the termreal estate（n.房地产,房地产所有权）and expect many different answers. People bring a variety ofperspectives（[pə‘spektiv]n.前途，希望，观点,想法）to discussions about real estate.To most, real estate conjures up ideas of physical combination of land andbuildings.Accordingly, people often define real estate as land and allpermanentattachments（[ə'tætʃmənt]n.附属物,附件）to land. To others,real estate means either a type of investment or a type of business.
- 让100个人给房地产下个定义，会产生许多不同的答案。
在讨论房地产时，人们对房地产有自己不同的观点。多数人认为，房地产是土地和建筑物的物理连接。因此，通常人们对房地产的定义是土地和土地上的所有永久性附属物。
第2页：房地产的价值来源
- Real Estate in the World Economy世界经济中的房地产Real estate provides the space humans need and costsmoney to physically produce. It exists because humans puttheir money and effort into transformingvacant（['veikənt]adj.未被占用的,空的）land into useful space.The wealth ofreal estate represents all previous contributions humans madeto improve land and the prevailing demand and supplyconditions in the asset market that affect current wealth levels.During each period, new contributions, investments, add to thelevel of wealth.
- 房地产为人类提供了需要的生活空间并且需要我们耗费资金进行建设。
它之所以存在，因为人类投入他们的资金和努力，把空闲的土地转化成对人类有用的空间。房地产的财富代表了人类为改善土地做出的所有的早先贡献，资产市场中主要的需求供给状况会影响当前的财富水平。在每一个时期，新的建设，投资，都会增加财富水平。
第3页：房地产市场的功能
- The Real Estate Market房地产市场A market is a place where goods can be bought and sell. Thefunction of a market is to provide a setting in which supply anddemand can establish market value, making it advantageous forbuyers and sellers to trade.Prices for goods and services in themarket are established by the operation of supply and demand.Essentially, when supply increases and demand remains stable,prices go down; when demand increases and supply remainsstable, prices go up.
- 市场是人们进行货物买卖的地方。
市场的功能是提供一个供给和需求能确定市场价值的场所，为买方和卖方交易提供便利条件。市场中货物和服务的价格是通过供给与需求的作用确定的。本质上，当供给增加，需求保持不变，价格会下降；当需求增加，供给保持不变，价格会上升。
第4页：房地产的两大特征
- Supply and Demand in the Real Estate Market.房地产市场中的供给与需求Two characteristics of real estate govern the way the marketreacts to the pressures of supply and demand:uniqueness（[ju:‘ni:knis]n.唯一性;单值性;独特性）andimmobility（[’iməu‘biliti]n.牢固,不动,固定）.Uniqueness means that, nomatter how identical they may appear, no two parcels of realestate are ever exactly alike; each occupies its own uniquegeographic（[dʒiə’ɡræfik]adj.地理学的）location.Immobilityrefers to the fact that property cannot be relocated to satisfydemand where supply is low.
- 房地产的两个特征控制着市场对供给与需求压力的反应方式，即唯一性和固定性。
唯一性表示，无论他们怎样相同的出现，在任何时候没有两个房地产是完全相似的，每一个都坐落在各自唯一的地理位置。固定性反映出一个事实，当供给很少时，房地产不能被重新部署以满足需求。
第5页：政府行为对市场的影响
- Virtually any government action has some effect on the realestate market. For instance, federal environmental regulationsmay increase or decrease the supply and value of land in localmarket.Real estate taxation is one of the primary sources ofrevenue for local governments. Policies on taxation of realestate can have either positive or negative effects. High taxesmay deter investors. On the other hand,tax incentives（税收鼓励）can attract new businesses and industries.
- 实际上，任何政府行为对房地产市场都有一定的影响。
例如，联邦环境条例可以增加或者减少区域市场土地的价值和供给。房地产税是地方政府税收的主要来源之一。房地产的税收政策对房地产市场或有积极影响或有消极影响。高税收也许会阻止投资者投资。另一方面，税收鼓励能吸引新的商业和工业。
第6页：影响需求的因素
- Factors affecting demandFactors that tend to affect the demand side of the realestate market include population,demographics（['demə'ɡræfiks]n.人口特征）, and employment and wagelevels.PopulationBecauseshelter(['ʃeltə]n.庇护所，住所)is a basichuman need, the demand for housing grows with the population.Although the total population of the country continues to rise,the demand for real estate increases faster in some areas thanin others.
- 影响需求的因素影响房地产市场需求方面的因素包括人口，人口特征，就业和工资水平。
人口因为居住是基本的人类需求，住房需求随着人口增长而增加。虽然一个国家的总人口是在持续增长的，房地产的需求在某些地区要比其他地区增长的更快。
第7页：就业与工资水平
- Employment and wage levelsDecisions about whether to buy or rent and how much tospend on housing are closely related to income. When jobopportunities are scarce or wage levels low, demand for realestate usually drops.The market might, in fact, be affecteddrastically by a single major employer moving in. Licenseesmust be aware of the business plans of local employers.
- 就业与工资水平关于是买还是租以及在住房上花费多少的决定与收入是紧密相关的。
当工作机会减少或者工资水平很低时，房地产的需求通常是下降的。事实上，市场也许很大程度上受一个新加入的大雇主所影响。执照持有者必须知道当地雇主的经营计划。
第8页：房地产的类型
- Types of Real Property房地产的类型Just as there are areas of specialization within the real estate industry,there are different types of property in which to specialize. Real estate can beclassified asresidential—all property used for single-family or multifamily housing,whether in urban, suburban or rural areas;commercial—business property, including office space, shopping centers,stores, theaters, hotels and parking facilities;industrial—warehouses(['wɛəhaus]n.仓库,货栈), factories, land inindustrial districts, and power plants;agricultural—farms,timberland(['timbəlænd]n.森林地),ranches([rɑ:ntʃ]n.大农场,大牧场), andorchards['ɔ:tʃəd]n.(通常指围起来的)果园;special purpose—churches, schools, andcemeteries[ˈsemitri]n.
- 墓地,公墓.正像房地产业中的专门领域，存在不同类型的房地产专业领域。
房地产可以划分为：住宅地产——无论城市、郊区或者农村，所有用于单个家庭或者多个家庭居住的房地产商业地产——商业地产，包括写字楼，购物中心，百货店，剧院，宾馆和停车场；工业地产——仓库，工厂，工业区用地和发电厂；农业地产——农场，林场，牧场和果园；特殊目的地产——教堂，学校，公墓。
第9页：土地开发
- The Creation of Real Estate房地产的创造Development of land and construction improvements onland represents the two necessary activities for creation of thereal estate people use for residential and commercial purposes.Land development is the process of changing raw land to adeveloped state. This process includes acquisition of land,installation of improvements to land such as streets andutilities, and securing zoning changes from local governments.
- 土地开发以及土地上的建筑物改良代表了人们用来居住或商业目的房地产创造的两项必要活动。
土地开发是把生地转变为熟地的过程。这个过程包括土地的取得，土地设施的安装，比如街道和公用工程，以及当地政府原有分区变化。
第10页：开发商与建造商
- Developers (and builders) are in business to make money.Development provides the opportunity to make (lose)enormous amounts of money.Theaccomplishmen[ə'kɔmpliʃmənt]n.完成(任务等)，技能，才艺of producingpermanent improvements on land also provides muchsatisfaction for many people.From an economic perspective,they accomplish the goal of making money from developmentby combining their entrepreneurial talent with proper amountsof land, labor, materials, and financial capital to produce realestate.
- 开发商（和建造商）在做买卖赚钱。
开发提供了赚取（亏损）大量金钱的机会。土地上生产性永久性设施的建设完成也为许多人提供了许多满足。从经济的观点来看，通过把企业家才干与适当数量的土地、劳动力、材料和资金相结合开发房地产，他们实现了从开发中赚钱的目标。
第11页：Section B 国际工程管理
- Section B International Construction Management国际工程管理The International Construction Industry国际工程业The global construction industry is large, complex and diverse. Thereare five prime elements that comprise the process associated withconstruction on an international scale, namely design consultancy,contracting, equipment supply, products and materials and, more recently,facility management(设备管理).The relationship between these elementsdepends on client requirements and the procurement method selected forthe delivery of the projects. Whatever method is adopted, projectmanagement will play a key role in the efficient execution of constructionprojects.
- 全球建筑业规模巨大，复杂多样。
与国际工程有关的业务由5个主要部分组成，分别是，设计咨询，施工承包，设备供应，产品和材料，以及最近以来的设备管理。这些组成部分之间的关系依赖于业主需求和项目采购方式的选择。无论采用那一种方式，项目管理在工程项目的高效实施中将起到非常重要的作用。
第12页：咨询顾问的作用
- Consultants who have specialist expertise in design andmanagement have considerable potential to operate on aglobal scale and this has been made more possible by recentadvances in information technology.Unprecedentedimmediate access is now available to all the expertisecontained within major consultancy practices by means of theInternet and it is now possible to dynamically generateinnovative solutions to problems collaboratively,irrespectiveofgeographical location.
- 咨询顾问在设计和管理方面拥有专长，有在全球范围内经营业务的巨大潜能，通过信息技术的新发展，这更加成为可能。
如今，依靠因特网方式，包含主要咨询惯例在内的所有咨询知识可以史无前例的快速直接获得，而且不管地理位置在何处，如今通过动态协作产生解决问题的革新方法成为可能。
第13页：资产与设备管理
- Property and facility management is still growing inprominence(['prɔminəns]n.声望,杰出). The development offacility management has been made more significant byincreasing demands emanating from environmental issues andthe continuing trend in privatization.Industry has responded byembracing the growing practice ofprivate public partnerships(PPP)(公共私营伙伴关系)and the use of private funds tosupport public projects. Such projects normally incorporate aconcession to allow the potential for organizations deliveringconstruction projects to extend their involvement byparticipating in the income generated from the completedbuilding.
- 资产和设备管理仍然显著增长。
由于来自于环境问题需求的增加和私有化程度的持续增长，设备管理的发展已经显得更加重要。通过包括公共私营伙伴关系（PPP）的不断实践以及私人资金支持公共项目的运用，行业已经做出回应。通常此类项目给予一定的特许权允许有发展潜力的组织交付工程项目，通过分享产生于竣工建筑物的收入以回收他们的投入。
第14页：建筑商品与劳务的国际贸易
- International trade in construction goods and servicesconcerns a range of economic transactions, which occur acrossnational boundaries between two or more organizations formutual direct or indirect benefit.Orders are placed andcontracts are awarded internationally when an organization inone country has gained competitive advantage overcompetitors in other countries, usually by exploiting expertise,low labor costs and indigenously occurring raw materials.
- 建筑商品和劳务的国际贸易关注一系列的经济运作，这些发生在跨越国界的两个或多个具有共同直接或间接利益的组织之间。
当某个国家的某个组织较其他国家竞争者更具有竞争优势，通常通过开拓专业技能，利用低廉的劳动力和本土产的原材料，获取国际订单及授予合同是顺理成章的事。
第15页：国际工程的利润水平
- International Construction Profits国际工程利润ENR(Engineering News-Record工程新闻记录)(1995a) refertogross profit(毛利，总利润)for contractors in the region of2.5% to 5% withnet profitgenerally less than 1%. This is verymuch in line with the performance of contractors in the UK.Since international work is viewed as more risky, presumablymost companies would look to top end of the range suggested.Of course in situations where there is greaterleeway(['li:wei]n.灵活性，落后)there is always the desire to look forhigher profits.
- 1995年工程新闻记录指出承包商的毛利润是2.5%到5%，通常净利润小于1%。
这与英国承包商的业绩是非常一致的。因为国际工程被认为更具风险性，可能大多数的公司向建议排序的顶端看去。当然，如果有争取更大的余地的机会，人们总是渴望寻求更高利润。
第16页：香港新机场项目
- Case Study: Hong Kong Airport案例：香港机场The new Hong Kong Airport would be viewed by many as aprime example of an international construction project.It is animpressive project in terms of scale and technical difficulty,requiring a 1248 hectarereclamation(填筑) and airportplatform, a 34km road and rail link to the central businessdistrict and 35000 construction workers.The total cost ofUS$20bn ranks as one of the largest infrastructuredevelopments of the world.
- 香港新机场被许多人认为是国际工程项目的一个典型案例。
从其规模和技术难度方面来说，它是一个令人印象深刻的项目，其中1248公顷的填筑工程和机场平台，34千米长的公路和铁路快线连接商业中心区，35000名建筑工人。香港新机场总投资200亿美元，是世界最大的基础设施项目之一。
第17页：新机场的施工强度
- At its peak the reclamation work required 18 of the world’slargestdredgers(挖泥船)working continuously 24 hours a dayfor 20 months.Design of road and utility infrastructure needed to be sufficientfor a working population of 45000(equivalentto new town).The passenger terminal designed toaccommodate35 millionpassengers per annum.
- 在填筑工程的高峰时，要求世界上最大的18艘挖泥船每天工作24个小时连续工作20个月。
道路和公共基础设施的设计需要满足足够45000人（相当于一座新城镇）工作人口的需要。客运枢纽站设计每年旅客吞吐量3500万人次。
第18页：Section C 项目风险管理
- Section C Project Risk Management项目风险管理Introduction概述In construction projects each of the three primary targets ofcost, time and quality will be likely to be subject to risk anduncertainty.It follows that a realistic estimate is one which makesappropriate allowances for all those risks and uncertaintieswhich can be anticipated from experience and foresight.Projectmanagers should undertake or propose actions which eliminatethe risks before they occur, or reduce the effects of risk oruncertainty and make provision for them if they occur when thisis possible and cost effective.
- 在工程项目中，成本、工期和质量三大目标中的每一个目标都有可能遭受风险和不确定性。
因而断定，一个可行的报价应为根据经验和远见预测出的所有风险和不确定性确定适当的补偿费用。当这成为可能并且成本是可接受的，项目经理应该采取或提议措施，在风险发生之前消除风险，或者减少风险和不确定性的影响，如果它们发生，为它们预先采取措施。
第19页：建设项目中的风险
- ConstructionRisks工程风险Construction projects have an abundance of risks, contractorscope with it and owners pay for it. The construction industry issubject to more risk and uncertainty than many other industries.For years, industry has had a very poor reputation for copingwith the adverse effects of change, with many projects failing tomeet deadlines and cost and quality targets. Change cannot beeliminated, but by applying the principles of risk management,engineers are able to improve the effective management of thischange.
- 建设项目包含着大量的风险，承包商负责承担这些风险，而业主则支付由此产生的费用。
与其他行业相比，建筑业面临着更多的风险和不确定性。多年来，由于很多项目没有实现工期、成本和质量目标，建筑业在对付变化的不利影响方面有着非常差的声誉。变化不可消除，但是通过应用风险管理的原理，工程师可以改善这种变化的有效管理。
第20页：风险管理的成本
- Cost of Risks风险的成本The cost of risks to an organization, whether managed ornot, can have a significant impact on itsbalance sheet(n.资产负债表).The cost of risk management itself results from thecosts incurred by the identification and evaluation of risks,control measures that might be put in place (such as bettersecurity provisions, standby plant), the costs of insurance orother financing provisions, and the fees for any outsideconsultants.
- 对于一个组织而言，无论其对付风险与否，风险的成本对它的资产负债表有重要的影响。
风险管理本身的成本是由风险识别和风险评估，在适当的位置采取风险控制措施（例如更好的安全防备，备用设备），保险费用或者其他的财务支出，以及任何外聘咨询顾问佣金导致的成本所引起的。
第21页：风险管理的重要性
- Risk Management风险管理Risk management, as it relates to construction projects, isvital to the successful undertaking and completion of anyconstruction process, as projects tend to be more complex andcompetition increasingly tougher.In virtue of constructionoperations typically involve the coordination of resources (i.e.,labor, materials, and equipment) to achieve a desired cost,schedule, quality, safety objective, sources of variability can beprimarily attributed to such things as labor productivity, regionalwage rates, and the availability and cost of materials andequipment.
- 对于工程项目而言，由于项目趋于越来越复杂，竞争变得更加激烈，风险管理对于成功地完成工程任务以及保证施工过程竣工是至关重要的。
由于施工工序需要资源的调整（例如，劳动力，材料和设备）完成一个预期的成本、进度、质量、安全目标，大量的可变性主要来源于诸如劳动生产率，地区工资水平，以及材料和设备成本及可获得性这些情况。
第22页：风险管理的目标
- The Importance of Risk Management风险管理的重要性Risk management provides support for attempts to gain better control overa project when it comes totime(planning/schedules),money(estimates),quality, information andorganization. It does this by siring thought beforehand to the undesirablefuture events or outcomes that might occur in a project, so that decisionsmay be made to take action early on in order to prevent or reduce theimpact of these events.Risk management is an important part of thedecision-makingprocess in construction, and now widely accepted as avital tool in the management of projects.
- 当项目达到工期（计划/进度），资金（估价），质量，信息和组织目标时，风险管理为项目试图获得更好的控制提供了支持。
做到这点需要运用创造性思维预先判断未来在项目中可能会发生的不利事件或者结果，为了阻止或减少这些事件的影响，以便提早制定采取行动的决策。风险管理是施工中决策过程的重要组成部分，现在被广泛的作为一种项目管理的重要工具。
第23页：风险管理的作用
- Risk management can help to:promote an uninterrupted progression of the activities within aproject and, byimplementing['implimənt]vt.使生效,贯彻,执行the appropriate measures, remove any interruptions asquickly as possible should they occur;instilconfidence in the project, in third parties, and in theproject team itself;promote communication within the project;support the decision-making process within a project.
- 风险管理可以：在项目中促进活动不间断的前进，通过执行恰当的措施，在它们发生时尽可能快的消除任何障碍；在项目，第三方以及项目团队中渗透信心；促进项目内部的沟通；支持项目的决策过程。
第24页：风险识别
- Risk Management Steps风险管理程序Risk identification风险识别Considerable effort occurs in identifying and ranking theprocesses, or components, of a project, its major goals, andits risks. This identification step is closely allied with the nextstep, risk analysis.To be effective, risk identification requiresconsiderable up-front planning and research. Projectmanagers need to determine the analysis technique to use;select the primary participants who are to perform the riskidentification; allow participants time to perform it; and decidewhere to conduct it.
- 在识别和排序项目的过程或者组成部分，它的主要目标以及风险时，需要付出大量的努力。
识别步骤与下一个步骤风险分析是紧密相连的。为了提高有效性，风险识别需要大量的提前计划和研究工作。项目经理需要确定使用的分析技术，选择实施风险识别的主要人员，规定实施所需要的时间，而且决定在何处实施。
第25页：定性与定量风险分析
- Risk analysis风险分析Project managers convert data collected during the riskidentification step into information using a selected technique.Two categories of risk analysis exist: quantitative andqualitative.Quantitative techniques rely heavily on statisticalapproaches, such as theMonte Carlo simulation(蒙特卡罗模拟法). Qualitative techniques rely more on judgment than onstatistical calculations, such asheuristics([hjuə'ristiks]n.启发法，探索法). The purpose of risk analysis is to quantify theeffects on the project of the risks identified.
- 项目经理运用一种选定的技术把风险识别阶段收集的数据转换成信息。
共有两类风险分析技术：定量和定性技术。定量技术主要依靠统计方法，比如蒙特卡罗模拟。定性技术更多地依赖主观判断胜过适用统计计算，比如，启发法。风险分析的目的是量化已识别出的风险对项目的影响程度。
第26页：风险应对的四种策略
- Risk response风险应对The response to the risk will be appraised by the severity ofthe risk to the project.There are four riskmitigationstrategies that can be adopted by the client and project teamin order to reduce therisk exposureassociated with aproject:avoidancereduction, transfer orretention.
- 风险应对是通过对项目风险的严重性进行评估做出的。
为了减少与项目相关的风险的承担，业主和项目团队可以采取四种风险减轻策略：风险回避，风险减轻，风险转移，风险保留。
第27页：风险后果与项目重评
- Avoidance风险回避If the situation is assessed whereby the risk is judged tohave such a serious consequence, then the situation maywarrant a reappraisal of the project. It may be necessary toreview the project's aims, either to reappraise the concept orto cancel the project.
- 如果判断出风险具有严重的后果，此时这种情形成为项目进行重新评价的依据。
这需要重新考虑项目的目标，不是重新评价理念就是取消项目。
第28页：减轻风险的措施
- Reduction风险减轻Reducing the risks may involve redesigning the project,changing the procurement strategy or undertaking additionalsoil investigation to minimize changes to the foundations,changing the specification or incorporating different methodsof construction to avoid unproven construction techniques.
- 减轻风险包括重新设计项目，改变采购策略或者采取额外的地基勘察最小化地基的变化，变更规范或者合并不同的施工方法避免使用未经验证的施工技术。
第29页：风险保留
- Retention风险保留Risks that are retained by either party may be controllableor uncontrollable by that party.Where control is possible itmay be exerted to reduce the likelihood of occurrence of arisk event and also to minimize the impact if the eventoccurs. It will be necessary to include a projectcontingencyfund.
- 风险不是由可控制的一方保留就是由无法控制的一方保留。
当控制成为可能时，可以尽力减少风险事件发生的可能性，同理，如果风险事件发生，可以最小化其影响程度。它必需包括在项目的不可预见费中。
第30页：项目经理的两种应对方式
- Risk control风险控制Project managers identify the measures, or controls toestablish, to lessen or avoid the impact of a risk on a processor component. Project managers can take one of twoapproaches towards risk.They can react to risk: that is, waitfor it to occur before taking any action—for example, they hiremore people at the last minute. Or, they can be proactive: thatis, establish plans and aninfrastructure—for example, theyset up an early warning system, to prepare their projects todetect and handle expected risks.
- 项目经理制定措施或者建立控制机构以减轻或者避免在施工过程中或者组成部分上的风险的影响。
对于风险，项目经理可以采取两种方法中的任一种。他们对风险的反应是：看风险发展的形势变化，然后再采取任何行动。例如，他们在紧要关头雇佣更多的工人。或者，他们可提前采取行动：制定一套计划和成立一个机构。例如，他们建立早期预警系统，以发现和处理项目中的期望风险。
