第1页：坝的定义与水库
Chapter 7 Hydraulic StructuresA dam can be defined as an impervious barrier or anobstruction constructed across a natural stream or ariver to hold up water on one side of it, up to a certainlevel.The side on which water is getting stored is calledupstream side and the other side is called downstreamside. The stored water on the upstream side constitutesthe reservoir.Section A Dam（
水工结构）（坝）大坝可以定义为一种不透水的障碍物，或建造在穿越河流并拦截一面水达到一定水位的构筑物。其存储水的一面被称为上游，另一面被称为下游。上游一侧的储存水构成水库。
第2页：大坝的综合利用
- The construction of a dam across a river results in theponding of water on its upstream side and this serves manyuseful purposes for mankind for water supply, irrigation,navigation([′nævi′ɡeiʃən]n.航行(学);航海(术),航空(术),powergeneration(发电), flood control andbreeding fish(鱼类饲养).A dam with its green surroundings forms an excellent placefor recreation purposes such as boating, swimming andwater skiing.
- 跨河大坝建造可以在其上游积蓄大量的水，从而满足人们供水，灌溉，航运，发电，防洪和养殖鱼等方面的要求。
大坝与周围的绿色的环境相结合可用于极好的娱乐服务，如划船，游泳，滑水等。
第3页：多用途大坝
- Besidestheabovementionedpurposesadamservesmanymiscellaneouspurposes,suchasaddingbeautytotheplacewhereitislocatedandmakesitaplaceoftourismimportance.Adamthereforeisthecentralstructureinamultipurposeschemeaimingattheconservationofwaterresources.Themultipurposedamholdsspecialimportanceintheunderdevelopedcountries,whereasmallnationmayreapenormousbenefitsinagricultureandindustryfromasingledam.
- 除了上述用途，大坝许多其它服务用途，如给所在地增加美景，发展当地的旅游业。
因此，多用途的大坝是核心结构，主要目标是保护水资源。在一些欠发达小国家可能仅依靠单一大坝在农业和工业获得巨大的利益，对于他们而言，多功能大坝则具有特殊重要性。
第4页：刚性坝与非刚性坝
- Damsarebroadlyclassifiedintotwocategories:rigiddamsandnon-rigiddams.Theyareonthebasisofthetypeandmaterialsofconstruction,asgravity,arch,buttress([′bʌtris]n.扶壁,扶垛),rockfill,andearth-filldams,etc.Thefirstthreetypesareusuallyconstructedofconcrete,belongtorigiddams.Asthenameimplies,thesedamsareconstructedusingrigidconstructionmaterials,suchasstoneorbrickorreinforcedcementconcreteorplaincementconcrete.Thebasiccross-sectionalprofileofarigiddamistriangular.
- 水坝大致分为两类：刚性坝和非刚性坝，它们基于建筑类型和建筑材料，如重力坝，拱坝，扶壁坝，堆石坝，填土坝等。
其中前三类通常是由混凝土建造的，属于刚性坝。顾名思义，这些坝采用刚性材料，如石头、砖、钢筋混凝土或素混凝土。刚性坝的截面轮廓是三角形。
第5页：重力坝
Agravitydam(重力坝)canbedefinedasastructurewhichisdesignedinsuchawaythatitsownweightresiststheexternalforces.Thistypeofdamismoredurableandhasmaximumrigidity,andrequireslessmaintenancewhencomparedtoothertype.Thefollowingforcesmustbeconsideredinthedesignofgravitydams:(1)weightofthedam;(2)hydrostaticforces;(3)upliftforce(上浮力);(4)iceforce;(5)earthquakeforce;(6)reaction.
- (1)weightofthedam
- (2)hydrostaticforces
- (3)upliftforce(上浮力)
- (4)iceforce
- (5)earthquakeforce
- (6)reaction.
这种类型的大坝有较强的耐久性和刚性最大，并且与其他类型相比需要较少的维修。下面是重力坝设计时必须考虑的因素：（1）坝的重量；（2）水体静压力；（3）上浮力；（4）冰压力；（5）地震力；（6）反应。
第6页：重力坝的安全系数
- Agravitydamisgenerallystraightinplan,althoughsometimesslightlycurved.Agravitydammayfailduetooverturning,sliding,andcrushingatthetoe.Generallyagravitydamwillbedesignedwithahigherfactorofsafetyandcheckwillbemadefortheabovepossiblefailures.
- 重力坝设计时，通常具有较高的安全系数，并针对上述可能的破坏进行检查。
第7页：拱坝
拱坝通过拱的作用将它背后的大部分水平推力传递到河谷的两岸，与重力坝相比，它的截面可以相对比较薄。Arch dams transmit most of the horizontal thrust of waterbehind them to both banks of the river valley by arch action andmay have thinner cross sections as compared with gravity dams.Arch dams can be used in V-shaped narrow river valleys, wherethe walls can withstand the thrust produced by the arch action.They can be built in U-shaped river valleys too, if conditionspermit. In some cases, multiple arch dams are built in broadervalleys.拱坝可用于V形狭窄河谷，那里的峡壁可以承受拱的作用所产生的推力。如果条件允许的情况下，他们也可以建立在U
形河谷。在某些情况下，多拱坝可建在更广阔的山谷中。
第8页：扶壁坝
- Thesimplestofthemanytypesofbuttressdamsistheslabtype,whichconsistsofslopingslabssupportedbybuttresses.Buttressdamsarelessmassiveandcanbeconstructedwherefoundationsoilisrelativelyweak.Enormousspaceavailablebetweenbuttressescanbeadvantageouslyusedforinstallingwatertreatmentplantsandpowerhouses.
- 在众多类型扶壁坝中，最简单的是由扶壁支撑的斜板组成的平板坝。
扶垛坝不太大，可以在那些地基相对薄弱的地方建造。在扶壁间的巨大空间可以被用于安装水处理装置和发电站。
第9页：填土坝与堆石坝
- Earth-filldams(土坝)androck-filldams(堆石坝，填石坝)belongtonon-rigiddam.Earth-filldamsaremadeofsoilwithminimumprocessingusingprimitiveequipment.Thesearebuiltinareaswherethefoundationisnotstrongenoughtobeartheweightofagravitydam.Rock-filldamsaremadeoflooserocksandboulderspiledintheriverbed.Aslabofreinforcedconcreteisoftenlaidontheupstreamfacetomakeitwatertight.Thesearemorestablethanearthdamsandlessstablethangravitydams.Thedamsectiongenerallyconsistsofdryrubblestonemasonry([′meisənri]n.石工工程)ontheupstreamsideandlooserockfillonthedownstreamside.
- 填土坝和堆石坝属于非刚性坝。
填土坝是利用原始设备以土为建材而建造的坝体。这种坝建立在那些基础不足以承受重力坝重量的地方。堆石坝是由松散的堆积在河床中的岩石和石块组成的一种坝。一块钢筋混凝土板往往放在上游面，使之水紧。这种坝的稳定性介于土坝和重力坝之间。包括在上游侧的碎石毛石和下游侧松散堆石。该坝断面一般
第10页：堆石坝的沉降与抗震
- Rock-fill dams are subjected to more settlement problemswhich may even result in the cracking of the reinforcedconcretemembrane([′membrein]n.表层)on the upstream side.It has got better resistance towards earthquakes because ofits flexible nature. The structural design of this type of dam isbit complicated when compared to other types.
- 堆石坝要面对的更多是沉降问题，可能导致上游一侧钢筋混凝土表层的开裂。
由于它的柔韧性，可以更好的抵抗地震作用。与其它类型的坝相比，这种类型的大坝在结构设计中的相对有些复杂。
第11页：坝址勘察与选址
- Before the design and construction of a dam, an extensivesurvey and study of the site must be made.This survey examinesnot only topographical features of the area, but also soil and rocksamples to determine the geological factors that may affect thedesign and construction. Thehydraulic（[hai′drɔ:lik]adj.液力的,液压的）features of the stream or river that will be dammed must also bedetermined.
- 在坝的设计和建造之前，必须对坝址进行广泛的勘测和研究。
勘查不仅要检查该区域地形特征，而且要采集土壤和岩石样本，以确定可能影响到设计和建造的地质因素。截断河流的水力特征也必须考虑在内。
第12页：潜在水压力计算
- Engineers use this information to calculate the potential waterpressure. Even after the site has been made, the preliminary workis still not complete.Scale models of the dam are often made sothat they can be tested under simulated conditions.Computersare also used extensively to calculate all the different loadingconditions, to which such huge structures can be subjected,including those that may be caused by earthquakes.
- 工程师使用这些信息来计算潜在的水压力。
甚至在这个地址被选定后，初步工作仍然在继续。工程中，常常做一定比例的大坝模型在模拟条件下测试。电脑也广泛用于计算在不同加载条件下，这种巨大的结构可以承受的包括由地震可能会引起各种力。
第13页：水利工程的定义
Hydraulic（[hai′drɔ:lik]adj.水力的,水压的）engineering is abranch of engineering related to the use and control of water. Itis concerned with the reasonable usage of natural waterresources,such as ocean, river, lake and underground water,and the prevention of water disasters, with the help of hydraulicstructures.Therefore, it is also concerned with the building ofhydraulic structures and the management of such processes.Section B Hydraulic Engineering（
水利工程）水利工程是关于水资源利用和水控制工程的一个分支，它主要涉及自然水资源的合理使用。例如海洋、河流、湖泊以及地下水的合理使用。与此同时，在水利结构的协助下它也能够阻止水灾的发生，因此它也涉及水工结构以及这一过程的监理。
第14页：水利工程的分支
- Hydraulic engineering includes such branches as waterwaytransportation, waterpower generation, improvement of soil bywater, water supply and drainage andpiscatorial（[﹑piskə′tɔ:riəl]adj.渔业的,渔民的）water usage.In thesebranches, whether it be the water resource usage or it be thewater disaster prevention, hydraulic structures need to be built.For example, in order to utilize the energy stored in water, thewater level should be raised by building dams to form thenecessary water head needed to drive water power generators.
- 水利工程包括诸如水路运输、水力发电，水资源对土壤的改进、给水排水以及淡水资源的利用。
在这些分支当中，不管是属于水资源利用还是属于防洪工程，都需要建立水利结构。例如，为了利用储存在水里面的能量，通过建造大坝提高水头来驱动水力进行发电。
第15页：水工结构物
- Water-route signs(航标), harbours, break-waters as well asspecial structures for ship manufacture and maintenance mustbe built for shipping enterprises. River routes also need to bedredged up to maintain proper functioning, and ship gates areneeded.In water conservancy projects for irrigation, drainageand flood prevention, various special structures need to be built:these are calledhydraulic structures(水工结构).
- 航标、港口、闸门以及建立造船企业所需的生产及维护船只的特殊结构。
航道和码头都需要把淤泥挖干净，从而发挥适当的作用。在水资源保护项目中，灌溉、排水、以及防洪等各种特殊结构都需要建造。这些都叫做水工结构。
第16页：综合水利项目
- These various aspects of hydraulic engineering can becombined to form comprehensive projects.For example, a rivercan be used for shipping, energy, water supply, irrigation andfishery.A reservoir built in a river can alleviate flooding,regulate irrigation, be used for a power plant, and improveshipping andfishery（[′fiʃəri]n.
- 渔业,水产业,渔场,养鱼术）.水利工程的这些不同方面能够被联合起来形成一个综合的项目。
例如，一条河流能够被船用、创造能源、水资源供给、灌溉以及渔业。建在河流上的水库能够缓减洪灾、有序灌溉、发电，与此同时，它也促进了船用和渔业的发展。
第17页：部门利益与社会经济因素
- Social and economical factors also play an important role inthe planning of hydraulic engineering projects.The interests ofvarious divisions may be in conflict solving these conflicts in acomprehensive way is vital for the correct planning of hydraulicengineering projects.
- 同部门之间的利益追求可能会产生冲突，用一种综合的方法去解决这些冲突，对于水利工程项目计划的正确实施是至关重要的。
社会和经济的因素在水利工程项目中也扮演着重要的角色。
第18页：水路运输
In all types of the surface transport systems, water transportis almost as old as human habitation on this globe.Man initiallyexploited the resources use in water transport as a means oftravel from place to place. This resulted in the discoveries ofnew continents and new resources and a need for large, betterdesigned and equipped sea going vessels was felt.A waterwaymust be sufficiently deep to allow the passage of ships.Different ships have different requirements. Also navigationmarks should be provided.Waterway Transportation（
水路运输）对地球来说，在所有的运输体系当中，水运几乎是人类最古老的运输方式。人类最早开采资源就是使用水运的方式，并且作为从一个地方移动到另一个地方的游走一种手段。这样就导致了新大陆及新资源的发现，而体积庞大、设计良好、装备齐全的海洋通行船也随之产生了。水路必须有足够的深度以供船只顺利通过，不同的船只对水深有不同的要求，并且应当提供相应的航海标记。
第19页：中国的水资源与水运
- The potential for waterway transportation in our country is alsogreat. Rivers that can be used for transportation total about100,000km. In addition, there are numerous bays and estuarieswith deep water along the coastline.These are very suitable forconstructing harbours. Therefore, water control and waterconservancy play an important role in China. They are closelyrelated to the lives and work of the Chinese people.
- 因此，水资源控制和水资源保护在中国扮演着重要的角色。
它与中国人的生活和工作有紧密相关。在我国水路运输的潜能是巨大的，作为运输的河流总计大约有100000公里，除此之外，沿着海岸线还有大量的海湾和深水出水口。这些条件非常适合建造港口。
第20页：海港码头的功能
SeaportAseaportisonewhichprovidesshelteredberthingforshipsandhasfacilitiesforembarkinganddisembarkingofpassengers,loadingandunloadingofvariedcargo,storingandsortingofvariousconsignmentsandservicingofships.Itisatransportationcenter
海港码头码头是一个为船只提供庇护的场所并且有这样的设施，能够为上船和下船的客人提供休息，各种货物的装卸及储存，同时将各种交托进行分类，为船只提供综合的服务。它是一个运输中心。
第21页：港口的作用
- Aharbouristhemaincomponentofaseaportwhichisapartiallyenclosedwaterareawheretheshipscanfindrefugefromstormsandwaves.Here,therearefacilitiesforrefuelling,repairsandcargohandlinginadditiontootherservices.Harbourstructuresplayanimportantroleinthehydraulicengineering,whichareexplainedinsucceedingsectionsofthisbook.
- 港口是一个码头重要部分，港口是能够使船只不受风暴和海浪袭击的部分封闭的海域。
在这儿，有一些提供燃料的设施，修理及货物处理等其他一些服务。港口结构在水利工程中有着重要的作用，这将在这本书的后面部分还要涉及。
第22页：水力发电工程
Water powerschemes([ski:m]n.安排，配置，计划，阴谋，方案，图解)are some of the largest, most expensive and most interestingcivil engineering structure.We have only to think of theNiagara([nai′æɡərə]n.尼亚加拉河)Falls power scheme, the AswanHigh Dam or the Volta River or the Snowy Mountains projects torealize this.What is more, the construction of water powerplant isoften associated with comprehensive utilization of rivers, resultingin significant advantages to national economy.阿斯旺高坝、沃尔特河或斯诺伊山等工程项目，就可以认识我们只要想到尼亚加拉瀑布发电工程、Water Power Generation（
水力发电）到这一点。更重要的是，水力发电站的施工经常与河流的综合利用联系在一起，因此对国民经济的发展有重要意义。水力发电项目是一些规模最大、耗资巨大和最引人注目的土木工程构筑物。
第23页：阿斯旺高坝的综合效益
- The Aswan High Dam across the Nile in Upper Egypt,increases thecultivable([′kʌltivəbl]adj.可耕种的，可栽培的)area ofEgypt by no less than 30 percent and controls the flooding of theNile and also provides 500megawatts([′meɡəwɔt]n.兆瓦特)ofelectricity.
- 阿旺斯高坝使埃及的可耕地面积增加30%以上，并且可以控制尼罗河的洪水灾害，并将提供50万千瓦的电力。
第24页：灌溉系统
- IrrigationIn agriculture, if the natural supply of water to the soil isinsufficient, artificial water supply to the crops-irrigation-isneeded to guarantee the normal growth of crops.In many casesthe water is taken from a reservoir. Usually the water in areservoir is first used for power generation and then used forirrigation.Thus, an irrigation system is built, which includes watersource, water intake structure, channels or pipes for waterdiversion and distribution, structures associated to the channelnet, channels for discharging excessive water.
- 灌溉在农业方面，如果水对土壤的自然供给不充足，人工供给庄稼的水，即灌溉对于保证植物的正常生长就是必须的了。
在许多情况下，这些水来自水库，水库中的水首先被用来发电然后才被用来灌溉。因此，一个灌溉系统包括水资源，取水结构、渠道、配送水的管道、与渠道网相联系的结构、排放多余水的渠道。
第25页：灌溉系统设计要点
- The problems associated with the design of irrigation systems,e.g. determining the irrigation area, the amount of water andwater source, methods for water intake and irrigation, distributionof the irrigation system, detailing of the structures, etc., must besolved by collaboration among hydraulic engineers,agriculturalists, and economists.
- 与灌溉系统设计相关的一些问题，例如，灌溉区域、水及水资源的数量、取水和灌溉的方法、灌溉系统的配送、结构的细部构造等等必须依靠水利专家、农学专家及经济学家的合作而得以解决。
第26页：排水工程
- Drainage involves artificially removing the excessive waterfrom a field and soil. The excessive water can be harmful to cropsand may form swamps.
- 排水排水涉及到人工地从土壤和地中排出过剩的水，这些过剩的水对庄稼是有害的并且很可能形成沼泽。
DrainageDrainage techniques including the following: (1)to reducewater intake by building dykes to hold back water, diggingchannels to stop water, etc.; (2)to use drainage ditches to carryaway surface water and ground water. In cities and industrializedregions, the drainage system is always underground.
- (1)to reducewater intake by building dykes to hold back water, diggingchannels to stop water, etc.
- (2)to use drainage ditches to carryaway surface water and ground water. In cities and industrializedregions, the drainage system is always underground.
第27页：土壤侵蚀与水土保持
- Soil and Water ConservationSoil erosion is the phenomenon of soil being washedaway by wind and water.On one hand，soil erosionremoves surface fertile soil, and on the other hand, itincreases the amount ofsediment（[′sedimənt]n.沉积，沉淀，沉淀物，沉降）in rivers which can cause fill up and evendesolation of the river.Furthermore, the erosion makesthe ground less capable of being infiltrated by rain water,resulting in more frequent floods.
- 流失使地面不能被雨水渗透，造成更频繁的洪水。
（水土保持）土壤侵蚀是土壤被水和风冲刷的现象。一方面，土壤侵蚀移除了表面的肥沃土壤，另一方面，它增加了在河流中的沉积物，而这些沉积物可能充满河流甚至使河流荒芜。此外，水土
第28页：水土保持的措施
- In order to avoid these disasters, theinfiltration（[﹑infil′treiʃən]n.渗透）capacity of the ground should beincreased to reduce the amount and velocity of runoff.The soilsshould be made to increase its ability to withstand erosion. Suchwork of sustaining water and soil is the so-called soil and waterconservation.
- 和土的保持工作就是所谓的水土保持。
为了避免这些灾难，增加地面的渗透能力从而使得径流量和径流速度减小。土壤应该提高经受侵蚀的能力，像这样的水
第29页：堤防与防洪
- Flood ControlDykes can be built to prevent river flooding. However, in mostcases the dykes alone cannot finally solve the problem. With thesedimentation process the riverbed will be gradually raised.Therefore, comprehensive measures must be taken in modernflood control.
- 建造堤坝是为了阻止洪水，然而，在绝大多数的情况下仅有堤坝最终是解决不了问题的。
随着沉淀的不断进行，相应的河床逐步升高。因此，在现代的防洪控制中必须采取综合的措施。（洪水控制）
第30页：洪水控制的综合措施
- In addition to buildingdykes（[daik]n.堤坝）, there are stillother two main aspects in flood control.One is to increase thedischarge capacity of the river, e.g. by dredging up the river bedand the other is to intersect and store the flood water in the upperreaches, e.g. by building a dam there to regulate the runoff. Itshould be emphasized that soil and water conservation is thefundamental measure in flood control because the runoff can besignificantly reduced.
- 在上游交叉和储存洪水，如在那儿建造大坝而使径流有序流动。
需要强调的是水土保持是洪水控制的基本措施，因为如果水土完好的话，径流可大大减少。除了建造堤防设施外，在防洪控制中还有两个主要的方面。一个就是增加河流的排水量，例如，通过疏浚河床。另一个是
第31页：供水系统的组成
- Water SupplyWater supply should be sufficient in quantity and good inquality. First, the amount of water should be estimated, and thenthe water source should be determined and its water qualityanalyzed.A water supply system includes three parts: waterintake, water treatment, and water distribution. The water sourcehas the most influence on the water supply system.
- 水供给应该在数量上足够在质量上优质，首先，应该估计水量，然后评价水资源，分析水质。
（供水工程）一个供水系统包括三个部分：取水、水处理和水的分配。水资源对供水系统上影响最大。
第32页：地表水与地下水水质
- Surface water, e.g. river water, is often muddy and containsrelatively large quantities of organic substance and bacteria andrelatively small quantities of minerals. So it is mainly suitable forindustrial usage. Ground water is usually suitable to be the watersource for drinking water supply system.
- 地表水，如河水，往往是比较泥泞，包含大量的有机物质和细菌及相对少量的矿物质。
因此它主要用于工业。地下水资源通常适用于饮用水供给系统。
第33页：水处理的主要方法
The main methods of water treatment include clarification(sedimentation andfiltration（[fil′treiʃən]n.过滤,筛选),sterilization（[sterilazeiʃən]n.杀菌,绝育）and softening.Sometimes the process also includesdeferrization（[difərai′zeition]n.除锈，除铁）,distillation（[distiˈleiʃən]n.蒸馏,蒸馏法）and air elimination
水处理的主要方法包括分类（沉淀、过滤）、消毒、软化。有时这个过程也包括除锈、蒸馏和空气消毒。
第34页：水利工程的发展成就
- General Description of the Three Gorges ProjectIn the last hundred years there have been greatdevelopments in hydraulic engineering. Hugewaterpower plant, canals several hundreds kilometerslong, andcolossal([kə′lɔsl]adj.巨大的,庞大的)irrigation anddrainage projects have been built. The Three GorgesProject in China is the most famous.
- 在过去的几百年来，水利工程已经取得了很大的发展，巨大的水力发电站，成千上万米长的运河，宏大的灌溉及排水项目已经被完成。
中国的三峡工程是最著名的。（三峡工程概述）
第35页：三峡工程的主体结构
- The main structure of theThree Gorges Project(三峡工程)consists of thewater impounding dam(蓄水大坝),floodreleasing installations(泄洪设施), power plants, andnavigation facilities.The dam is a concrete gravity type with amax height of 175～185m and total 1ength of 2,500~2,800m.Thespillway([′spilwei]n.溢洪道,泄洪道)section is built in themiddle of the river channel.There are two power plants at thetoe of the dam. The navigation facilities are arranged on the leftbank.
- 在大坝底有两个电站，导航设施安排在左岸。
三峡工程的主体结构的组成包括蓄水大坝，泄洪设施，发电站，和导航设施.大坝是一个混凝土重力坝，最大高度175-180米和总长2500〜2800米，溢洪道部分建立在河道的中间
